Korean Sculpture
Ancient
Korean Sculpture
Sculpture, in the
most primitive sense of the word, must have started in the Paleolithic Age,
although no example that can be attributed to that time has been found. The
earliest examples of sculpture known in Korea are some rock carvings on the Pan-gudae
Cliff in Ulsan and some clay figurines of men and animals dating from the
Neolithic Age.
The Bronze Age saw
the active production of bronze, earthenware and clay figurines, but it was not
until the introduction of Buddhism that sculpture in Korea began to develop in
both quantity and quality. Any sculpture worth mentioning falls in the category
of Buddhist sculpture.
Koguryo
Period Sculpture (37 B.C.~A.D. 668)
Buddhist images were
brought into the country when Buddhism was first introduced to Koguryo in 372.
It is believed that not until several decades later did Korean artisans begin to
make Buddhist images. Although there is no tangible proof, it is quite plausible
that Koguryo was the earliest of the Three Kingdoms to make Buddhist images, as
it was the first to be exposed to the religion. The construction of temples such
as Ch'omunsa and Ibullansa three years after Buddhism reached Koguryo supports
this assumption. Murals in tombs and many historic records also indicate that
Buddhism greatly influenced the culture of Koguryo.
Nevertheless, no
Buddhist images made by Koreans have been found that date before 500. A
gilt-bronze image of a seated Buddha of the fourth or fifth century was recently
discovered in Ttuksom in Seoul, which was part either of the Paekche or Koguryo
Kingdom, but it is also believed to be a Chinese import, as its style is
strongly suggestive of the Northern Wei sculpture. If proven to be a Korean
imitation of a Chinese Buddha, it would be the earliest example of a Korean-made
Buddhist sculpture. As it is, the earliest Koguryo Buddhas or indeed the
earliest Korean Buddhas-with definitive inscriptions of date appear only after
the sixth century.
The rugged terrain
and the harsh climate of Koguryo's vast territory are reflected in its arts,
which were heavily influenced by the temperamental and vital style of the
Northern Wei bordering the kingdom on its continental side. The geometric
quality of the Northern Wei art which accompanied the introduction of Buddhism,
produced a straightforward style. It is not easy to define the style of Koguryo
Buddhas from the few extant diminutive gilt-bronze or clay figurines.
Nevertheless, assuming these to be representative of the general sculptural
trends of the time, a number of identifying characteristics can be drawn.
The Koguryo Buddhas
have lean elongated faces, prominent usuisas (a protuberance on top of the head
symbolic of the marks of Buddha) on mostly shaven heads, rigid cylindrical
bodies draped by thick robes that have "fish-tail" folds at the hem on
both sides, and hands that are disproportionately large. The boat-shaped
nimbuses encircle not only the heads but also most of the length of the bodies
and are decorated with crude but meticulously depicted flames. The pedestals,
which are cylindrical, are finished with lotus petals carved with a masculine
feel.
Embodying all the
characteristics is the Tongsa Buddha. A gilt bronze standing Buddha with the
inscription "Yongga seventh year," which corresponds, to 539, it was
made at Tongsa temple in P'yongyang and was found in 1967 in Hach'non-ri,
Kyongsangnam-do province. The archaic smile of its elongated face, the rigid
body draped in a thick robe and the hem of the robe that is pointed like
feathers at the sides, all work together to produce a spiritual quality.
Another giltbronze
Buddhist triad with the inscription "Kyemi year" as its casting date,
which corresponds to 563, was uncovered in Seoul. It also shows the same
characteristics. However, a relaxing of the tension and rigidity is seen in a
triad bearing the inscription "Shinmyo year," or 571. Though basically
of the style influenced by Northern Wei, as illustrated by the symmetrical folds
of its thick robe, a slight change in modeling is apparent in the fullness of
its face and the much softer rendering of the hems of the robe that fluctuate in
an M-shape.
This is probably
attributable to the influences of Eastern and Western Wei or even the early
Northern Qi or Zhou which resulted in a new style very much Koguryo's own. A
number of clay Buddhas of the same style found in Wono-ri, P'yong-annam-do
province (North Korea) are believed to have been made in the mid-sixth century,
though they are without inscribed dates. As Koguryo's artisans improved and
Buddhism became firmly established, sculpture experienced many stylistic changes
and a truly Koguryo style developed around 560.
Paekche
Period Sculpture (18 B.C.~A.D. 660)
Buddhism was
introduced to Paekche via Eastern Jin by an Indian monk named Maranant'a in 384,
12 years after it was introduced to Koguryo. The production of Buddhist images
in Paekche is believed to have begun no later than the fifth century, because
the aforementioned diminutive gilt-bronze Buddha excavated in Seoul implies that
local imitations of the Chinese and Indian Buddhas could have been made by that
time, and because ancient records show that a temple was built in 385 in Hansong,
today's Seoul. However, Paekche images inscribed with fifth century dates have
not yet been found. The earliest examples date from the sixth century and
include a stone triad and some clay images from Chongnimsa temple, a giltbronze
standing Buddha from the site of Powonsa temple, some Buddhas carved around a
boulder in Yesan, and a gilt-bronze Buddha with the name Chong Chi-won inscribed
on it. Though retaining the traditions of Wei and the Koguryo style exemplified
by the Wono-ri Buddha in their refined faces, thick robes and graceful forms,
these Buddhas show signs of Paekche modifications.
Characteristics
unique to Paekche sculpture are clearly evident in all the Buddhist images of
the late sixth century, including an agalmatolite seated Buddha and a
gilt-bronze bodhisattva from Kunsu-ri, and stone reliefs of Buddhist triads in
Sosan and T'aean. It is recorded that artisans and painters were invited to
Paekche from Liang China in 541. The arts of the southern dynasties of China,
therefore, must have influenced Paekche sculpture from the mid-sixth century
onward. Whatever their influences were, Paekche Buddhas of the time are
characterized by warm, human attributes. The small usnisa, the stately but
relaxed body, the voluminous curvature under the thick robe, the diminished
side-flare of the hems of the robe, the folds of the robe of the bodhisattva
that cross each other in the shape of an "X," and the simple but
refined rendering of the lotus petals of the pedestals, are all definitely local
traits Paekche artisans developed from the Chinese styles of the late Northern
Wei, Qi and Zhou. What makes the Paekche Buddha truly unique is the unfathomable
benevolent smile that graces its round pleasant face. That expression, often
labeled the "Paekche smile," is one of a kind.
Influenced by the
Sui and Tang dynasties of China, Buddhist images became elongated and slender
around 600. The modeling of the bodies became much fuller and some bodhisattvas
were depicted slightly twisted with S-shaped postures rather than in upright,
static positions. These traits are best illustrated by a gilt-bronze standing
bodhisattva in the Cha Myong-ho collection, a gilt bronze standing Buddha from
Kyuam-myon in Puyo, and a seated stone Sakyamuni in Yondong-ri, Iksan, Chollabuk-do
province. Paekche sculpture can be described as being more refined and subtle,
the result, perhaps, of its more temperate climate and fertile lands.
Shilla
Period Sculpture (57 B.C~A.D. 668)
It took time for
Shilla to officially accept Buddhism because of the kingdom's conservatism and
geographical remoteness, but when it finally did in 527, the production of
Buddhist images flourished. A Buddha about five meters tall was made in
Hwangnyongsa temple within two or three decades of Buddhism's acceptance as a
state religion. Buddhist sculpture developed so rapidly that by 579, Shilla
artisans were exporting their works to Japan. This growth was made possible by
the originality of Shilla's artists and the cultural influences of the
neighboring Paekche kingdom and Koguryo Kingdom.
Examples of early
Shilla sculpture include a gilt-bronze standing Buddha which is believed to have
come from Hwangnyong-sa temple, a stone relief of a group of Buddhas on Mt.
Tansoksan in Kyongju, a Maitreya seated half cross-legged (National Museum
collection) and a gilt-bronze standing bodhisattva excavated from Koch'ang (Kansong
Museum collection). Of these, the relief on Mt. Tansoksan best represents the
techniques and style of early Shilla. The giant Buddha of Hwangnyongsa temple,
which unfortunately was destroyed, must have been of great artistic value as it
is recorded to have been one of the three most important treasures of Shilla.
The seventh century
saw drastic changes in both the quantity and quality of Buddhist sculpture. The
seated stone Buddha of Inwang-ri of Kyongju; the headless figure seated half
cross-legged in a posture of meditation on Mt. Songhwasan; a Buddhist group in
T'apkok; a part of a stone figure in a half-seated meditational posture, and a
stone relief of Buddha, both from Mulya in Ponghwa; and a standing gilt-bronze
bodhisattva (the former Toksugung Museum collection) are some examples of this
period that share the same stylistic traits. Some of them are portrayed in
geometric abstraction, with some indication of Qi and Zhou influences. Some
others display Sui and Tang influences, evident in their round, full faces,
relaxed bodies and the realistic rendering of the garments.
The stone relief of
T'apkok and the triad of Samhwaryong best illustrate the Shilla sculpture of the
time. The Buddha, the central figure of the triad, is seated on a low stool in a
rather awkward pose. With a low usnisa, the round, smiling face, the elegant
rendering of the body under the thin robe, the shallow relief of the sparse
folds which cluster at the knee, the Buddhist swastika on the forehead, the
decorative knot of the belt, and the simple halo, all indicate a stylistic
departure from the previous period. Chinese influences of the Qi, Zhou, and
especially of Northern Zhou, are quite obvious. The triad is believed to date
from around 600, antedating slightly a triad in Pae-ri, which is believed to
have been made in the early 600s.
Unified
Shilla Period Sculpture (668~935)
After Shilla
defeated Koguryo and Paekche and unified the Korean Peninsula, the regional
differences between the Three Kingdoms were integrated gradually and, with the
assimilation of Tang Chinese elements, a new style unique to Unified Shilla
emerged around 700. Examples of the early Unified Shilla period are the Buddhist
guardian kings of Sach'eonwangsa and Sokchangsa temples, the Buddhist triad of
Kunwi, the stone relief of Buddha in Kahung-ri of Yongju, a group of relief
images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas from Yon-gi, and two gold Buddhas from
Kuhwang-ri. Each reflects the confusion of the transitional era while still
retaining some regional elements. For instance, in the case of the triad of
Kunwi, which is similar to the gold Buddhas of Kuhwang-ri except for the facial
depiction, traditional abstraction is combined with a new realism. This is seen
in the modeling of the shaven head with a prominent usnisa, the solemn face with
thick eyelids and elongated ears, and the dignified but rather crouched body
which is supported by an angular pedestal.
Realism also became
more prevalent in the early eighth century, but as can be seen in the Amitabha
and Maitreya images of Kamsansa temple, it is mixed with idealistic elements.
The curvilinear lines and the voluminous, elastic bodies of these two images are
encountered repeatedly in the Buddhas of Kulbulsa temple, the seated Sakyamuni
of Poriam Hermitage, the stone relief of Ch'ilburam Hermitage, and the Buddhist
group of Sokkuram Grotto.
Needless to say, the
Sokkuram images are the masterpieces of the sculptural art as well as the
supreme embodiment of the religious spirituality of the time. The image of the
Sakyamuni Buddha in the rotunda of the grotto is testament to the genius of
Korean sculpture, with its superb rendering of the round face, long brows, a
perfect nose and ethereal smile, and the magnificent, lifelike body clothed in a
thin robe that falls in shallow folds.
These idealized and
realistic features of plastic forms and sensual resiliency disappeared gradually
after Sokkuram Grotto. This tendency is best shown in the newly
discovered stone Vairocana Buddha of Songnamsa temple, Mt. Chirisan dated 766.
By 800 there emerged a neo-realistic style which emphasized a solemness of
facial expression and human proportions. Buddhas of this period are
characterized by a subdued expression and a lack of vitality in lines and form.
This style is most evident in the stone relief of Mt. Pangosan, which was made
in 835, and the triad of Yunchigok Valley of Mt. Namsan, Kyongju, which was made
in 801. A number of Vairocana and Bhaisajyaguru Buddhas were made in the
mid-ninth century in many temples throughout the country, including Tonghwasa,
Porimsa, Top'iansa, Ch'uksosa, Pusoksa and Popchusa. All are variations of this
style. In the later years, there appeared a tendency to exaggerate the upper
part of the body. Buddhas of magnificent proportion were also made occasionally.
Koryo
(918~1392) and Choson (1392~1910) Period Sculpture
Koryo dynasty,
succeeded Shilla, proclaimed itself to be a Buddhist nation. The iron Buddha of
Kwangju, the stone Buddha triad of Kaet'aesa temple, the gilt-bronze Buddha of
Munsusa temple and the wooden Buddha of Pongnimsa temple, all are representative
of the best of Koryo works.
The quality as well
as the quantity of Buddhist sculpture declined rapidly, however, at the
beginning of the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910). Nevertheless, during the 15th
century when Buddhism was suppressed by government, Buddha images of good
quality were still being made. Most of the existing Choson images were made
after the Japanese invasions of 1592-1598 when Buddhism recovered some of its
former vitality and splendor. Buddhas of this period have their own unique
qualities and merits.
Koryo
(918~1392) and Choson (1392~1910) Period Sculpture
Koryo dynasty,
succeeded Shilla, proclaimed itself to be a Buddhist nation. The iron Buddha of
Kwangju, the stone Buddha triad of Kaet'aesa temple, the gilt-bronze Buddha of
Munsusa temple and the wooden Buddha of Pongnimsa temple, all are representative
of the best of Koryo works.
The quality as well
as the quantity of Buddhist sculpture declined rapidly, however, at the
beginning of the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910). Nevertheless, during the 15th
century when Buddhism was suppressed by government, Buddha images of good
quality were still being made. Most of the existing Choson images were made
after the Japanese invasions of 1592-1598 when Buddhism recovered some of its
former vitality and splendor. Buddhas of this period have their own unique
qualities and merits.
Modern
Period Sculpture (1923-)
Modern Korean
sculpture was introduced to Korea in 1923 by young artist named Kim Pok-chin. He
entered the Tokyo School of Fine Art in 1919, and won a entrance prize at
competition which was held by the Japanese government in 1923. He returned home
to become the first Korean ever to be trained in the sculptural art of the
Western style. A few other students then enrolled in the same Japanese
institution in order to study modern sculpture. Those artists, including Kim
Chong-yong, Kim Kyong-sung and Yun Hyo-jung soon joined Kim Pok-chin in
introducing sculpture influenced by European traditions to Korea. They were
mostly absorbed with sculpting portions of the human body such as heads, torsos
and costumes in a realistic manner, which they had learned in Tokyo and where
academic realism prevailed. These sculptors were active in presenting works at
national art exhibitions held annually under government sponsorship both in
Seoul and in Tokyo. This early stage of modern sculpture suffered from a lack of
creative inspiration despite the pioneering zeal of these early artists, who
were largely obsessed with imitating Western sculpture and transplanting it to
Korea's cultural soil.
These artistic
limitations were also aggravated by the colonial situation. Since Korea's
colonization by Japan in 1910, Koreans link to the outside world was largely
colored by Japanese will. It is from this general perspective that the overall
background and development of sculpture as a major aesthetic movement in modern
Korean history should be viewed.
By the 1930s,
however, the national circumstances were far from conducive to lively activity
among artists, as Japan was pulling its colonial reins ever more tightly in
preparation for World War II. In 1945 Korea was liberated, but the overall
situation did not improve and actually became even more hostile for aesthetic
creation, as the southern half of the peninsula headed into ideological
conflicts and military confrontation with the northern half.
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Admiration of
Western sculpture breathed some life into the activities of Korean sculptors
during this unstable period, however. Yun Hyo-jung met Marino Marini in Venice
in 1952, and was greatly influenced by the famous sculptor and his works.
Futhermore, in 1954, the work of Kim Chong-yong was selected by the
international sculpture competition which was held in England. It was the first
time in the 20th century that Korean sculpture was introduced to the Europe. Kim
Chong-yong, although in many ways a traditional scholar-artist well-trained in
the Confucian classics, also became the pioneer of Korean abstract sculpture.
After the Armistice
Agreement which brought the three-year Korean War to a cease-fire in 1953, art
circles began to regain some vitality. A few large-scale exhibitions were
organized by private organizations, and these helped encourage a remarkable
diversity in style and technique most visible in the fields of painting and
sculpture. Among the exhibitions of notable significance were the annual
membership show sponsored by the Korean Fine Art Association, and the
Contemporary Korean Art Exhibition for Invited Artists sponsored by the leading
daily newspaper Chosun Ilbo. The latter deserves special note for
providing emerging artists of avant-garde tendencies the chance to display their
works.
Modern Korean
sculpture became firmly established by the end of the 1950s. As the conflict
between the opposing schools of realism and abstractionism was increasing,
sculptors began to employ a greater diversity of materials, including assorted
metals and stone, thus breaking with their traditional reliance on plaster and
wood.
Between the 1960s
and the 1970s, Korean sculpture made impressive progress due to the country's
rapid economic development. Dominating the Korean sculptural arts during this
period of dramatic change were two major international modern art movements. The
first of these was the so-called "antiformal abstractionism," first
introduced to Korea in the early 1960s. The movement, which acquired a major
impetus with the creation of the Korean Avant-Garde Art Association, breathed
new life into the world of Korean sculpture throughout this period. Sculptors of
this vein repudiated all natural forms respected by the traditional school of
academic realism. They sought to give spontaneous expression to their emotions
through nonrepresentational shapes. In the following decade of the 1970s, this
emotional abstractionism faced a strong challenge from another new art movement
that opposed its conception and style, called "sculptural
conceptualism."
Sculptural
conceptualism pursued "pure" abstraction, free from all emotional
binds and connotations. In terms of style, artists of this movement favored
simple and daring forms in contrast to those of the previous generation of
antiformal vanguardism which tended to be complex and intricate. The 1980s
experienced an unprecedented burgeoning of sculptors and sculptural activity. A
number of young artists became nostalgic about past trends of a more humane
nature, in reaction to the cold intellectualism of the previous decade.
Since the 1980s,
Korean sculpture has embarked upon new and culturally diverse trends. Foremost
among them is the establishment of a new realistic tendency by artists primarily
concerned with restoring the communication between artists and the public. Genre
boundaries between sculptures and other forms of arts were also being broken
down. In addition, technology became a very important element in the sculptural
art of this period. The video sculpture of Paik Nam-june was a starting point
for these artistic movement. These trends all reveal the extent to which
traditional concept of sculpture in Korea has been recast by the introduction of
new media, which in turn has brought about a newer and more socially diverse
relationship between the artist and the public.
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